ulasan filem talentime dari perspektif etnik

Talentime ialah sebuah filem arahan Yasmin Ahmad, dan merupakan yang terakhir dalam hayatnya, yang ditayangkan di pawagam Malaysia selama sebulan mulai 26 Mac 2009, dan ulang tayangnya disiarkan pada 13 hingga 19 Ogos sempena memperingati pemergian Yasmin pada 25 Julai.

Seperti filem-filem arahan Yasmin yang lain, filem Talentime memaparkan kisah hubungan cinta tanpa mengira kaum, agama atau latar kebudayaan seumpamanya.

 Tatkala negara dilanda krisis hubungan kaum, Allahyarham Yasmin Hamid telah menjadikan Talentime sebagai penghubung antara kaum menerusi karyanya itu. Filem ini juga berjaya mengetengahkan elemen perpaduan melalui hubungan persahabatan dan perintaan remaja tanpa mengira kaum. Atas unsur-unsur inilah, filem ini dipilih sebagai pemenang ketika kerajaan memperkenalkan gagasan I Malaysia bagi menyatupadukan kaum.

Antara yang menarik  dalam Talentime ialah bukan sekadar kisah pencarian bakat seperti diari Akademi Fantasia ataupun OIAM Diaries dan yang sekufu dengannya. Bukan sekadar cerita, malah terdapat sindiran-sindiran halus dan realiti kehidupan yang benar-benar berlaku di sekeliling kita.

Sebagai contoh, watak kecil seperti Mei Ling membawa mesej yang besar. Mei Ling merupakan orang Cina yang menjadi orang gaji di rumah keluarga Melayu. Mei Ling memeluk Islam. Mei Ling bukan masuk Melayu atau menjadi orang Arab. Mei Ling dipandang jelik oleh Datin Kosong (ops Kalsom) kerana Mei Ling tiada nama yang bunyi Melayu atau Arab. Walhal, hakikatnya, Mei Ling nampak lebih Islam daripada Datin Kosong atau Kalsom.

Begitu juga sindiran pelajar Cina,Kahoe terhadap Hafiz lakonan Shafie Naswip. Dia memerli orang Melayu walau selemah mana sekalipun, suatu hari kelak pasti akan dibantu. Realitinya, itu yang berlaku dalam negara kita, di mana orang bumiputera mendapat hak keistimewaan tertentu. Yang penting, Yasmin menekankan aspek perpaduan dan bersatu-padu di kemuncak cerita ini.

Hakikatnya, kini sudah ada sistem meritokrasi menggantikan sistem kuota bagi kemasukan pelajar ke institusi pengajian tinggi. Rentetan masalah sebenarnya tak berakhir di sini. Benar, Mungkin orang Melayu 'ditolong' sehingga ke tahap masuk universiti. Tetapi realitinya di alam pekerjaan terutama sektor swasta, orang Cina terutamanya memiliki peluang dan ruang pekerjaan yang lebih luas. Sesetengah syarikat tanpa segan silu meletakkan syarat fasih berbahasa Mandarin untuk diambil bekerja. Hal ini menunjukkan keadilan .

Cerita ni ada segala ramuan yang ada dalam perpaduan kaum. segala rasa dapat dirasa. Pahit, manis, masin, kelat, masam dan sebagainya. Setiap watak utama, dihidupkan dengan jayanya oleh setiap pelakon tak kira pucuk muda seperti Jac, Pamela dan Mahesh termasuk watak-watak tempelan ataupun kemunculan istimewa seperti watak Ida Nerina dan Mei Ling

Dalam Talentime tidak sah pula kalau tidak sebut mengenai lagu yang melatari cerita ini. Lagu Urdu, O re piya dendangan Rahat Fateh Ali Khan sememangnya mempunyai unsur kesepaduan dan penyatuan bangsa. Lagu yang sungguh indah melodinya termasuk maksudnya. Begitu juga lagu-lagu ciptaan Pete Teo yang dinyanyikan oleh Atilia dan Aizat dengan begitu merdu sekali.

Dari sudut jalan cerita. Filem Yasmin memang tidak  ‘klise’. Maksudnya, kita tidak boleh mengagak perjalanan plot cerita yang selanjutnya.  pujian harus diberikan kepadanya kerana berada di kelas tersendiri.

Filem  Talentime  ialah filem berjiwa Malaysi. Hal ini kerana dalam filem ini terdapat kaum melayu, cina, dan india dan begitu juga Malaysia yang terdiri daripada pelbagai kaum. Ada orang Melayu, Cina, India tidak lupa juga mereka yang wujud hasil 'kahwin campur'. Dan sebuah sekolah menengah menjadi saksi bagaimana kaum-kaum ini hidup bermasyarakat di bawah satu bumbung sekolah. Mungkin inilah dikatakan bangsa Malaysia. Secara peribadi, saya tidak berasa bangga sangat lahir sebagai Melayu, tetapi sangatbersyukur sangat-sangat lahir sebagai Muslim.

Talentime cuba memecahbelahkan dinding penghalang ataupun 'divider' antara orang Melayu, Cina dan India. Kita dapat menyaksikan betapa 'prejudis'nya kaum lain terhadap kaum kita dalam filem ini. Dan tanpa kita sedari, kita tak dapat menghalang kuasa cinta. Kerana cinta tak kenal siapa. Cinta tak kenal suku bangsa kaum sesiapa seperti cinta yang wujud antara Mahesh dan Melor. Cinta tak kira usia sebagaimana watak Mak Hafiz merasai manisnya cinta di saat-saat genting. Dan cinta juga tak kenal rupa paras dan fizikal seperti Cikgu Adibah yang besar juga mempunyai peminat.

Mengenai aspek lakonan, rata-rata pelakon yang dipilih Yasmin memang mengesankan. Teraju utama, Mahesh dan Pamela mulanya tampak kekok dan agak janggal, namun lama kelamaan 'chemistry' mereka menyerlah terutama ketika 'klimaks'. Dan babak paling menarik semestinya cara mereka berkomunikasi. Mahesh yang pekak dan bisu menggunakan henfon menulis SMS supaya Melor faham. Ia sangat bermakna  dan pujian seharusnya diberikan kepada Mahesh, yang membuktikan 'silence' memberikan jiwa kepada lakonannya. Ekspresi wajahnya memang kelihatan hidup.

Jaclyn Victor tidak menghampakan. Jac boleh pergi jauh sekiranya diberikan watak yang lebih menonjol dan mencabar. Shafei Naswip usah dipertikaikan wibawanya. Kali ini, si 'Mukhsin' ber'speaking' selaras dengan watak Hafiz yang pandai (dapat markah 100% dua kali) dan berbakat mencipta dan menyanyikan lagu BI. watak ibu Mahesh lakonan Sukarnia. Penjiwaan yang begitu emosi sekali.

Dalam Talentime seperti filem Yasmin terdahulu, sekali lagi menjadikan Ipoh sebagai lokasi wajib. Yasmin beritahu kepada wartawan, memandangkan Ipoh merupakan tempatnya dibesarkan, maka segenap ceruk dan pelusuk Ipoh yang menarik untuk disinematografikan bukanlah suatu rahsia baginya. Yasmin menggunakan latar tempat sebuah kampung yang terpencil di ibu kota, yang di dalamnya mengandungi sebuah keluarga yang hidup secara harmoni dan ada ketikanya bergolak dengan kehidupan masing-masing. Keharmonian masyarakat dalam keluarga Harith ( anaknya Melur ) di gambarkan secara aman dan penuh dengan kemesraan antara bapa dan anak, ibu dan anak dan keluarga dengan pembantu rumah adalah salah satu gambaran realiti yang benar-benar berlaku dalam masyarakat Malaysia.

Walaupun mesranya sebuah keluarga tersebut, tetapi masih ada lagi kaum yang begitu prejudis terhadap kaum lain. Ini di gambarkan oleh Yasmin melalui kehidupan keluarga Mahesh yang bergolak dengan dua situasi iaitu, pertama, Kehidupan silam pak cik saudaranya yang pernah menjalinkan hubungan dengan seorang wanita Indian-Muslim ( diceritakan melalui ibu Mahesh kepada Bhavani), kedua, pergolakan perasaan anaknya, Mahesh terhadap rasa cintanya pada gadis melayu bernama Melur, lakonan Pamela Chong.

Apakah seseorang yang memeluk agama islam perlu menukar namanya menjadi seperti islam?. Itulah yang cuba dipersoalkan Yasmin melalui Talentime, di mana persoalan tersebut cuba ditimbulkan melalui watak Datin Kalsom, lakonan Ida Nerina semasa dalam perjalanan mereka menuju ke Genting bersama keluarga Harith dalam sebuah kereta.

 Dalam situasi ini, Datin Kalsom mempersoalkan apakah Mei Ling yang memeluk islam tidak menukar namanya menjadi islam. Ini dijawab Yasmin melalui karektor ibu Melur lakonan Mislina Mustaffa, di mana beliau memberikan jawapan bahawa 'Mei Ling memeluk islam bukannya bertukar menjadi melayu'. Ini bermakna, Yasmin mengkritik secara jelas pemikiran rakyat Malaysia keseluruhannya yang begitu prejudis kepada kaum lain sekiranya mereka bertukar agama, dan tidak bertukar nama. Dalam Talentime, isu ini digambarkan secara komedi di mana garapan tersebut tidak menjadi kontroversi, malahan ia sebuah kritikan yang agak mendalam.

Yasmin Ahmad sedaya-upaya memasukkan isu-isu dan mesej-mesej yang menarik dalam filem ini. Baik mesej agama, perpaduan,kekeluargaan dan mengenai politik. terlalu banyak elemen yang di masukkan yang membuatkan filem ini punya pelbagai warna. Setiap watak dan kumpulan watak membawa dan mendukung satu mesej atau isu.

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system of exchange 11

System of exchange

An exchange system or trade network can be defined as any manner in which consumers connect with producers. Regional exchange studies in archaeology describe the networks that people used to gain, barter for, purchase, or otherwise obtain raw material, goods, services and ideas from the producers or sources, and to move those goods across the landscape. The purpose of exchange systems can be to fulfill both basic and luxury needs. Archaeologists identify networks of exchange by using a variety of analytical techniques on material culture, and by identifying raw material quarries and manufacturing techniques for specific types of artifacts.Exchange systems have been a focus of archaeological research since the mid-19th century, when chemical analyses were first used to identify the distribution of metal artifacts from central Europe. One pioneer study is that of archaeologist Anna Shepard who during the 1930s and 40s used the presence of mineral inclusions in pottery sherds to provide evidence for a widespread trade and exchange network throughout the southwestern United States.

Economic Anthropology and Exchange Systems

The underpinnings of the exchange systems research were strongly influenced by Karl Polyani in the 1940s and 50s. Polyani, an economic anthropologist, described three types of trading exchange: reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange. Reciprocity and redistribution, said Polyani, are methods that are embedded in long-range relationships that imply trust and confidence: markets, on the other hand, are self-regulating and disembedded from trust relationships between producers and consumers.

Reciprocity is a behavioral system of trade, which is based on the more or less equal sharing of goods and services. Reciprocity could be defined simply as "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours": you do something for me, I'll reciprocate by doing something for you. I'll watch your cows, you'll provide my family with milk.

Redistribution involves a collection point from which goods are apportioned out. In a typical redistribution system, a village chief collects a percentage of the produce in a village, and provides it to members of the group based on need, gifts, feasting: any one of a number of etiquette rules that have been established in a given society.

Market exchange involves an organized institution, in which goods producers congregate at specified locations at specified times. Either barter or money exchange is involved to allow consumers to obtain required goods and services from purveyors. Polyani himself argued that markets may or may not be integrated within community networks.

Recriprocity

The oldest mode of exchange is Reciprocity which is used in egalitarian societies, like that of the Ju/’hoansi. There are three different types of reciprocity: generalized, balanced, and negative reciprocity.

Generalized reciprocity is an exchange where return isn't expected right away and the value of this return isn’t specified. This is based on the assumptions that all exchange balances out, like that between family members. This is largely based on trust.

Balanced reciprocity (or also known as Symmetrical reciprocity) is when exchange is made with the expectations that those who give an amount will get the same in return. This, unlike generalized reciprocity, has a specified time limit as to when the return should be made. The Ju/’hoansi, who use reciprocity in their societies in all forms, use balanced reciprocity. They distinguish between what they barter, which requires immediate balanced exchange (this is similar to our shopping experiences, where it's expected that money will be immediately exchanged for goods). With in the Ju/'hoansi, this also includes hxaro, which establishes that this exchange entitles obligations between the two in the future.

Negative reciprocity is when a party tries to exchange without having to give up any value, which is the opposite of balanced exchange. "This can range from haggling prices to outright seizure."

Reciprocity, the most ancient mode of exchange, was the exchange of goods and services of equal value. Generalized reciprocity can be defined as when the individuals involved just assume that the exchange will balance out. Nothing is expected immediately and a value of return is not established before the exchange is made. This type of reciprocity occurs often between parents and children. Balanced reciprocity, the opposite of generalized, is when a specific value of return and under an established time limit is expected. This exchange can be found between those in relationships. For example, when boyfriends and girlfriends exchange gifts of equal value and expect the same in return at Christmas. Negative reciprocity is the exchange of goods or services when at least one party attempts receive something for nothing in return without suffering consequences. This type of reciprocity can involve haggling or in some cases seizure.

"In cultural anthropology and sociology, reciprocity is a way of defining people's informal exchange of goods and labour; that is, people's informal economic systems. It is the basis of most non-market economies. Since virtually all humans live in some kind of society and have at least a few possessions, reciprocity is common to every culture. Marshall Sahlins, a well known American cultural anthropologist, identified three main types of reciprocity in his book Stone Age Economics (1972).

Generalized reciprocity is the same as virtually uninhibited sharing or giving. It occurs when one person shares goods or labor with another person without expecting anything in return. What makes this interaction "reciprocal" is the sense of satisfaction the giver feels, and the social closeness that the gift fosters. In industrial society this occurs mainly between parents and children, or within married couples. In other cultures generalized reciprocity can occur within entire clans or large kin groups, for instance among the east Semai of Malaysia. Between people who engage in generalized reciprocity, there is a maximum amount of trust and a minimum amount of social distance.

Balanced or Symmetrical reciprocity occurs when someone gives to someone else, expecting a fair and tangible return at some undefined future date. It is a very informal system of exchange. The expectation that the giver will be repaid is based on trust and social consequences; that is, a "mooch" who accepts gifts and favors without ever giving himself will find it harder and harder to obtain those favors. In industrial societies this can be found among relatives, friends, neighbors, and coworkers. Balanced reciprocity involves a moderate amount of trust and social distance.

Negative reciprocity is what economists call barter. A person gives goods or labor and expects to be repaid immediately with some other goods or labor of the same value. Negative reciprocity can involve a minimum amount of trust and a maximum social distance; indeed, it can take place among strangers."

John Restakis (in ch. 6 of Humanizing the Economy):

"Reciprocity is the social mechanism that makes associational life possible. It is the foundation of social life. In its elements, reciprocity is a system of voluntary exchange between individuals based on the understanding that the giving of a favour by one will in future be reciprocated either to the giver or to someone else. A simple example is the loan of a lawn mower by one neighbour - call him Frank, to another – say, Fred. Frank makes the loan on the assumption that at some later date Fred will return the favour. If Fred does not, the basis of reciprocity falls apart. No more loaning of the lawnmower to Fred. Moreover Fred’s non-reciprocity, if it continues, becomes reputational. Others will stop extending favours to Fred also. So willingness to reciprocate is a basic signal of the sociability of an individual. Taken to an extreme, the complete unwillingness of an individual to reciprocate is tantamount to severing the bonds between themselves and other people. Reciprocity is thus a social relation that contains within itself potent emotional and even spiritual dimensions. These elements account for an entirely different set of motivations within individuals than behaviour in the classical sense of “maximizing one’s utility” as a consumer.

Reciprocity animates a vast range of economic activities that rest on the sharing and reinforcement of attitudes and values that are interpersonal and constitute essential bonds between the individual and the human community. What is exchanged in reciprocal transactions are not merely particular goods, services and favours, but more fundamentally the expression of good will and the assurance that one is prepared to help others. It is the foundation of trust. Consequently, the practice of reciprocity has profound social ramifications and entails a clear moral element. Reciprocity is a key for understanding how the institutions of society work. But it is also an economic principle with wholly distinct characteristics that embody social as opposed to merely commercial attributes. When reciprocity finds economic expression in the exchange of goods and services to people and communities it is the social economy that results. Examples range from the provision of burial services through the creation of friendly societies in the 1800s to the promotion of neighborhood safety through organizations like Neighborhood Watch today.

Finally, reciprocity is egalitarian – it presupposes a direct relationship of equality between the individuals involved. It is very different from altruism where the giver may have no relation to the receiver and where there is a clear asymmetry of power, as is the case with charity."

Contemporary Reciprocity

"In experiments and surveys people are not stingy, but their generosity is conditional. Moreover, they distinguish among the goods and services to be distributed, favoring those which meet basic needs, and among the recipients themselves, favoring those thought to be "deserving." Strong reciprocity and basic needs generosity better explain the motivations that undergird egalitarian politics than does unconditional altruism. By "strong reciprocity" we mean a propensity to cooperate and share with others similarly disposed, and a willingness to punish those who violate cooperative and other social norms--even when such sharing and punishing is personally costly. We call a person who acts this way Homo reciprocans. Homo reciprocans cares about the well-being of others and about the processes determining outcomes--whether they are fair, for example, or violate a social norm. He differs in this from the self-regarding and outcome-oriented Homo economicus. We see Homo reciprocans at work in Chicago's neighborhoods, in a recent study that documented a widespread willingness to intervene with co-residents to discourage truancy, public disorders, and antisocial behaviors, as well as the dramatic impact of this "collective efficacy" on community safety and amenities.1

Homo reciprocans is not committed to the abstract goal of equal outcomes, but rather to a rough "balancing out" of burdens and rewards. In earlier times--when, for example, an individual's conventional claim on material resources was conditioned by noble birth or divine origin--what counted as balancing out might entail highly unequal comfort and wealth. But, as we will see, in the absence of specific counter-claims, modern forms of reciprocity often take equal division as a reference point."

Anna Harris: "Reciprocity – defined as the practice of exchanging things with others usually for mutual benefit. Michel describes reciprocity as the basis of the social bond, and designates it as a voluntary act. Clearly there is some obligation implied if not specified, since 'complete unwillingness' to reciprocate can lead to a severance of social bonds. This unwillingness might also be seen as a result of 'psychological distress' as described by David Smail .

In other words 'unwillingness' need not be conceived of as some sort of personal failure, but could also be understood as a response to certain social conditions and structures which have not (yet) evolved to supporting individuals in reaching their full potential. This would indicate that societies where reciprocity is the basis of the social bond, are themselves still in transition, have not evolved beyond / transcended the ego.

To paraphrase one of Thomas Huebl's talks, he describes the ego, which is mainly concerned with getting something for itself, as going through different phases of development: initially in childhood, the child is dominated by its constant need to receive; then the mature adult who looks for a more balanced exchange, (the market or reciprocity), lastly, transcending the ego, by experiencing abundance through connection to higher energies, and being inspired to pass this on by giving in service. Thomas sees this last phase as a precondition for a sustainable society.

I believe this is what we are seeing in the beginnings of the p2p movement, the 'shareable society' and the reclamation of the commons. The traditional role of women as the care-givers, ie. giving without asking for return, also fits in here. Reciprocity is best seen as a stage (of course stages overlap) in our awakening consciousness, the spiritual component to which Bauwens alludes, and a development out of the childhood selfishness/ self-centered focus on private interests and gain.

The same applies to trust. In so far as trust is dependent on an expected return, whether to the giver or someone else, whether now or in the future, there will be an obligation on the receiver, and in that sense it will not be a free association. I understand that Michel is approaching from the viewpoint of designing an economy which serves the interests of the community. However the greatest good is not that which serves the community, but that which serves the community and the individual. The principle of reciprocity, while serving the community, does not provide for the freedom of the individual. On the contrary it obliges the individual to reciprocate at some point." (networked labour mailing list, May 2014)

Redistribution

Redistribution is a mode of exchange that involves some sort of centralized social organization. Members of a group contribute items such as food, money, clothing, etc. to the central organization, and the organization then redistributes the items to the members of the group.

Redistribution can occur on a small scale or a very large scale. A small scale example of redistribution is a class party. Each person is assigned something to bring – chips, salsa, pop, brownies, napkins, utensils, etc. On the day of the party, everyone brings in their items to share with each other. The Salvation Army is a good example of a rather medium-sized scale of redistribution. The Salvation Army collects money, clothing, household goods, cars, and even airline miles to redistribute to those in need. A large scale example of redistribution is the Internal Revenue Service. The IRS collects taxes from citizens and redistributes the money throughout our governmental system, to education, post offices, road construction, and the like.

Salvation Army in Lausanne

One widespread local example of redistribution is church potlucks. For special events, several churches hold potlucks. Every family who comes brings a single dish – anything from veggie trays to fried rice to potato salad. All the dishes are placed together in a central area, and when everyone has arrived, the congregation can eat a meal together from the assortment of dishes.

Another example of this is under Big Man/Big Woman political groupings in the South Pacific where the leader, chosen by favor, is in charge of general affairs, and collects a certain sum (i.e. a pig) from their group and redistributes it. This gives the Big Man/Big Woman the label of generous, although they personally don’t give any more than anyone else. This is also an example of the tradition of potlatch, where group members all give goods to one, who evenly distributes these goods among the community. The main point of this is to redistribute wealth.

Redistribution requires some form of centralized social organization. Those who own the central position of the organization receive economic contributions from all members of the group. With the contributions they receive from all members of the group they redistribute those goods to all the members of the groups in fair amounts to meet the needs of every member of the group. A potlatch is a good example of redistribution. When people go an event and are provided with food they then take that food and redistribute it to all members of their family or some kind of group they belong to. An example of this is the indigenous Americans of the northwest coast of North America. This is a very common mode of exchange among tribes and groups in all part of the world. It is a fair and normally well organized mode of exchange and valued by the members of most tribes and groups.

Potlatching

Potlatches are ceremonies held by First Nations peoples on the Pacific Northwest coast of the United States and Canadian province of British Columbia such as the Haida, Tlingit, Salish and Kwakiutl (Kwakwaka'kawakw). The potlatch takes the form of a ceremonial feast traditionally featuring seal meat or salmon. In it, hierarchical relations between groups were observed and reinforced through the exchange of gifts and other ceremonies. The potlatch is an example of a gift economy, whereby the host demonstrates their wealth and prominence through giving away their possessions and thus prompt participants to reciprocate when they hold their own potlatch. Although this sort exchange is widely practiced across the planet (consider, for example, the Western practice of buying one's friends rounds of drinks), the Northwest Coast potlatch is of a massive scale, and also served to redistribute goods from coastal to inland ecological zones.

The native peoples of the Northwest Coast of North America institutionalized this ceremonial redistribution of food and gifts. The southern Kwakiutl people were the most elaborative on this custom until 1904 when the potlatch was outlawed, however the ceremony did continue to be practiced in many societies. In 2004, the Tlingit clan members re-enacted the ritual in Sitka, Alaska, for the 100th Anniversary Commemoration of "The Last Potlatch". The clan members dressed in traditional Tlingit attire and practiced Tlingit traditions for the two day long celebration. Watercolour by James Gilchrist Swan (1818-1900) of the Klallam people of chief Chetzemoka (nicknamed 'the Duke of York'), with one of Chetzemoka's wives (nicknamed 'Jenny Lind') distributing 'potlatch' at Port Townsend, Washington, USA.

Market Exchange

Market Exchange is used in Capitalist societies and is the most recently developed mode of exchange. Market exchange is the trade of goods that are calculated in value based on a standard of value and typically money, which are carried out by the market. Although trade and money were developed independently, they are used together to create market exchange. This is generally used in the Western societies, in places such as, Europe and the United States.

Modes of exchange are the patterns involving the three distribution techniques: reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange. Exchange can either be balanced or unbalanced.

Balanced Exchange: Exchange with no short or long term marginal gain (profit).

Unbalanced exchange: Exchange where profit or marginal gains are the end goal.

Market Exchange was invented by the capitalist society that uses an economic system in which wealth, and the means of producing wealth, are privately owned and controlled rather than commonly, publicly, or state-owned and controlled. It is where currency exchange takes place. It is where banks and other official institutions facilitate the buying and selling of foreign currencies. Trade, money, and market institutions developed independently and were not invented to work together. Capitalism is unique because the three (trade, money, and market) ended up working together. This was first done in the societies of early modern Europe. It is said that different modes of exchange often co-exist within a single society meaning that each society has their own way of operating and exchanging good in their day-to-day lives.

For example, in the United States we use the market mode or exchange, but you can still find redistribution and reciprocity. Reciprocity if you recall is the most ancient mode of exchange, was the exchange of goods and services of equal value and redistribution requires some form of centralized social organization. In families in the U.S., most parents have and income and then redistribute that income to their children and loved ones. Parents using their income to buy their children food and clothing without expecting return is an example of reciprocity. Some people believe that you cannot properly understand the exchange process without first fully understanding the production process. People who meet exchange have different resources to use when bargaining with one another, and it is said that these differences in resources are not shaped by the market but by the productive process.

As consumers, it is also important to take into account what kind of trade or exchange you are supporting with your purchase. Take a highly consumed north-west product, a cup of coffee. Like any product there is a story about where it came from. In this case there is the farmer, the distributor, and the company which you are buying it from. Is the coffee fair trade? Does it support organic farming? It is good to know what kind of exchange in which you are participating, but also important to know if your dollar is being spread out in a way that you think is appropriate.

Bibliography

Stphen,H. (1992). Barter, Exchange and Value: An Anthropological Approach. New York,USA. University of Cambridge.

Alexander Moore. Cultural Anthropology: The Field Study of Human Beings. San Diego, California. Collegiate Press.

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system of exchange

System of exchange

Reciprocity

The oldest mode of exchange is Reciprocity which is used in egalitarian societies, like that of the Ju/’hoansi. There are three different types of reciprocity: generalized, balanced, and negative reciprocity.

Generalized reciprocity is an exchange where return isn't expected right away and the value of this return isn’t specified. This is based on the assumptions that all exchange balances out, like that between family members. This is largely based on trust.

Balanced reciprocity (or also known as Symmetrical reciprocity) is when exchange is made with the expectations that those who give an amount will get the same in return. This, unlike generalized reciprocity, has a specified time limit as to when the return should be made. The Ju/’hoansi, who use reciprocity in their societies in all forms, use balanced reciprocity. They distinguish between what they barter, which requires immediate balanced exchange (this is similar to our shopping experiences, where it's expected that money will be immediately exchanged for goods). With in the Ju/'hoansi, this also includes hxaro, which establishes that this exchange entitles obligations between the two in the future.

Negative reciprocity is when a party tries to exchange without having to give up any value, which is the opposite of balanced exchange. "This can range from haggling prices to outright seizure."

Reciprocity, the most ancient mode of exchange, was the exchange of goods and services of equal value. Generalized reciprocity can be defined as when the individuals involved just assume that the exchange will balance out. Nothing is expected immediately and a value of return is not established before the exchange is made. This type of reciprocity occurs often between parents and children. Balanced reciprocity, the opposite of generalized, is when a specific value of return and under an established time limit is expected. This exchange can be found between those in relationships. For example, when boyfriends and girlfriends exchange gifts of equal value and expect the same in return at Christmas. Negative reciprocity is the exchange of goods or services when at least one party attempts receive something for nothing in return without suffering consequences. This type of reciprocity can involve haggling or in some cases seizure.

Redistribution

Redistribution is a mode of exchange that involves some sort of centralized social organization. Members of a group contribute items such as food, money, clothing, etc. to the central organization, and the organization then redistributes the items to the members of the group.

Redistribution can occur on a small scale or a very large scale. A small scale example of redistribution is a class party. Each person is assigned something to bring – chips, salsa, pop, brownies, napkins, utensils, etc. On the day of the party, everyone brings in their items to share with each other. The Salvation Army is a good example of a rather medium-sized scale of redistribution. The Salvation Army collects money, clothing, household goods, cars, and even airline miles to redistribute to those in need. A large scale example of redistribution is the Internal Revenue Service. The IRS collects taxes from citizens and redistributes the money throughout our governmental system, to education, post offices, road construction, and the like.

Salvation Army in Lausanne

One widespread local example of redistribution is church potlucks. For special events, several churches hold potlucks. Every family who comes brings a single dish – anything from veggie trays to fried rice to potato salad. All the dishes are placed together in a central area, and when everyone has arrived, the congregation can eat a meal together from the assortment of dishes.

Another example of this is under Big Man/Big Woman political groupings in the South Pacific where the leader, chosen by favor, is in charge of general affairs, and collects a certain sum (i.e. a pig) from their group and redistributes it. This gives the Big Man/Big Woman the label of generous, although they personally don’t give any more than anyone else. This is also an example of the tradition of potlatch, where group members all give goods to one, who evenly distributes these goods among the community. The main point of this is to redistribute wealth.

Redistribution requires some form of centralized social organization. Those who own the central position of the organization receive economic contributions from all members of the group. With the contributions they receive from all members of the group they redistribute those goods to all the members of the groups in fair amounts to meet the needs of every member of the group. A potlatch is a good example of redistribution. When people go an event and are provided with food they then take that food and redistribute it to all members of their family or some kind of group they belong to. An example of this is the indigenous Americans of the northwest coast of North America. This is a very common mode of exchange among tribes and groups in all part of the world. It is a fair and normally well organized mode of exchange and valued by the members of most tribes and groups.

Potlatching

Potlatches are ceremonies held by First Nations peoples on the Pacific Northwest coast of the United States and Canadian province of British Columbia such as the Haida, Tlingit, Salish and Kwakiutl (Kwakwaka'kawakw). The potlatch takes the form of a ceremonial feast traditionally featuring seal meat or salmon. In it, hierarchical relations between groups were observed and reinforced through the exchange of gifts and other ceremonies. The potlatch is an example of a gift economy, whereby the host demonstrates their wealth and prominence through giving away their possessions and thus prompt participants to reciprocate when they hold their own potlatch. Although this sort exchange is widely practiced across the planet (consider, for example, the Western practice of buying one's friends rounds of drinks), the Northwest Coast potlatch is of a massive scale, and also served to redistribute goods from coastal to inland ecological zones.

The native peoples of the Northwest Coast of North America institutionalized this ceremonial redistribution of food and gifts. The southern Kwakiutl people were the most elaborative on this custom until 1904 when the potlatch was outlawed, however the ceremony did continue to be practiced in many societies. In 2004, the Tlingit clan members re-enacted the ritual in Sitka, Alaska, for the 100th Anniversary Commemoration of "The Last Potlatch". The clan members dressed in traditional Tlingit attire and practiced Tlingit traditions for the two day long celebration. Watercolour by James Gilchrist Swan (1818-1900) of the Klallam people of chief Chetzemoka (nicknamed 'the Duke of York'), with one of Chetzemoka's wives (nicknamed 'Jenny Lind') distributing 'potlatch' at Port Townsend, Washington, USA

Market Exchange

Market Exchange is used in Capitalist societies and is the most recently developed mode of exchange. Market exchange is the trade of goods that are calculated in value based on a standard of value and typically money, which are carried out by the market. Although trade and money were developed independently, they are used together to create market exchange. This is generally used in the Western societies, in places such as, Europe and the United States.

Modes of exchange are the patterns involving the three distribution techniques: reciprocity, redistribution, and market exchange. Exchange can either be balanced or unbalanced.

Balanced Exchange: Exchange with no short or long term marginal gain (profit).

Unbalanced exchange: Exchange where profit or marginal gains are the end goal.

Market Exchange was invented by the capitalist society that uses an economic system in which wealth, and the means of producing wealth, are privately owned and controlled rather than commonly, publicly, or state-owned and controlled. It is where currency exchange takes place. It is where banks and other official institutions facilitate the buying and selling of foreign currencies. Trade, money, and market institutions developed independently and were not invented to work together. Capitalism is unique because the three (trade, money, and market) ended up working together. This was first done in the societies of early modern Europe. It is said that different modes of exchange often co-exist within a single society meaning that each society has their own way of operating and exchanging good in their day-to-day lives.

For example, in the United States we use the market mode or exchange, but you can still find redistribution and reciprocity. Reciprocity if you recall is the most ancient mode of exchange, was the exchange of goods and services of equal value and redistribution requires some form of centralized social organization. In families in the U.S., most parents have and income and then redistribute that income to their children and loved ones. Parents using their income to buy their children food and clothing without expecting return is an example of reciprocity. Some people believe that you cannot properly understand the exchange process without first fully understanding the production process. People who meet exchange have different resources to use when bargaining with one another, and it is said that these differences in resources are not shaped by the market but by the productive process.

As consumers, it is also important to take into account what kind of trade or exchange you are supporting with your purchase. Take a highly consumed north-west product, a cup of coffee. Like any product there is a story about where it came from. In this case there is the farmer, the distributor, and the company which you are buying it from. Is the coffee fair trade? Does it support organic farming? It is good to know what kind of exchange in which you are participating, but also important to know if your dollar is being spread out in a way that you think is appropriate.

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Bincangkan bagaimana faktor alam sekitar semulajadi memberi kesan terhadap pola perkembangan guna tanah

Pengenalan

Aktiviti guna tanah mengikut fungsinya merupakan satu keputusan dan rumusan manusia untuk

menggunakan sumber yang terhad iaitu tanah secara optimum, di mana nilai sesuatu fungsi guna

tanah adalah berteraskan kepada nilai sesuatu masyarakat. Guna tanah biasanya merupakan kesan

aktiviti penempatan dan kemajuan manusia di dalam sebuah kawasan melalui peringkat-peringkat

tertentu. Keperluan kegunaan guna tanah sentiasa berubah mengikut perkembangan semasa

berdasarkan keperluan asas aktiviti manusia di dalam kehidupan.

Guna tanah boleh diklasifikasikan kepada bentuk aktiviti seperti perindustrian,

perumahan, bandar, institusi dan sebagainya. Konsep dan definisi aktiviti guna tanah

kebanyakannya tidak mempunyai satu keseragaman yang khusus. Di Malaysia, konsep aktiviti

guna tanah dipengaruhi oleh perancangan yang dilakukan oleh Jabatan Perancang Bandar dan

Desa di setiap majlis daerah atau pihak berkuasa tempatan (PBT). Aktiviti guna tanah seperti guna

tanah perindustrian, kadangkala termasuk industri kecil dan sederhana, berat dan ringan.

Turner (1993) seperti yang dirujuk oleh Carvalho (2006) berpendapat bahawa aktiviti

guna tanah adalah satu istilah yang dirujuk kepada satu proses yang berhubung dengan tindakan

manusia dalam mengolah dan menyesuaikan permukaan tanah untuk memenuhi keperluan

manusia. Manakala Zonneveld (1993) (dlm carvelina (2000) pula memberikan definisi guna tanah

sebagai kepelbagaian aktiviti yang dijalankan oleh manusia untuk mengubah landskap ruang

tanah tersebut termasuklah aktiviti perburuan dan pembajakan (di dalam Carvalho, 2006). Keduadua

pendapat di atas boleh dikaitkan dengan penggunaan tanah sebagai sumber untuk meneruskan

kelangsungan kehidupan. Tindak balas antara manusia dan tanah merupakan penyumbang utama

kewujudan aktiviti guna tanah di sesebuah kawasan.

 Guna tanah dalam perindustrian dan pertanian

Perindustrian merupakan salah satu sektor penting dalam pembangunan harta

tanah di Malaysia pada masa kini. Satu sistem perancangan yang baik untuk sektor

perindustrian dapat meningkatkan kemampuan pencapaiannya bagi pembangunan

negara (Aniza, 2001). Perkembangan pembangunan sektor industri menjadi

penyumbang utama kepada pertumbuhan ekonomi negara.

Pertanian adalah kegiatan pemanfaatan kegiatan sumber daya hayati yang di lakukan manusia untuk menghasilkan bahanpangan, bahan baku industri serta untuk mengelola lingkungan hidupnya. kegiatan pertanian secara sempit berkaitan dengan kegiatan bercocok tanam atau budi daya tanaman agar tumbuh dengan baik

Jenis alam sekitar mempengaruhi dalam guna tanah perindustrian dan pertanian.  Faktor alam sekitar semulajadi memberi kesan terhadap pola perkembangan guna tanah kerana  bentuk muka bumi atau keadaan alam sekitar  mempengaruhi dalam guna tanah sesuatu kawasan. Contohnya di Gurun ,Kedah. Bentuk muka bumi yang terdapat di Gurun terdiri daripada dataran ,keadaan ini menyebabkan kawasan ini  menjadi  perkembangan dan persaingan guna tanah yang menyebabkan berlaku kesesakan ruang. Sebahagian besar ruang di kawasan ini digunakan untuk tujuan pertanian seperti ladang kelapa sawit, kawasan perkuburan dan juga sistem pengangkutan yang banyak mempengaruhi pola petempatan di kawasan ini.

Perkembangan guna tanah adalah sangat ketara terutama sekali kawasan yang berada di kawasan sekitar Pekan Gurun yang menjadi tumpuan kawasan petempatan dan juga aktiviti ekonomi peta1 yang menunjukkan guna tanah di daerah Yan.

 Daerah Yan yang terletak 48 kilometer dari bandar Sungai Petani, 27 kilometer dari Pekan Gurun dan 50 kilometer dari Bandaraya Alor Setar. Kawasan ini merangkumi keluasan 5 kilometer dari garisan latitud Utara 5°47’30” hingga Utara 5°47’41” dan Timur 100° 22’30” hingga  Timur 100°23’56”. Kawasan ini juga terletak pada aras ketinggian di antara 13 hingga 100 meter dari aras laut. Kawasan ini adalah seperti yang ditunjukkan di dalam peta Daerah Yan di bawah.

Guna tanah di sesuatu kawasan adalah dipengaruhi oleh pelbagai faktor. Walau bagaimanapun, faktor fizikal memainkan peranan yang sangat berkesan dalam penentuan bentuk guna tanah di sesetengah tempat diikuti dengan faktor fizikal mikro dan faktor-faktor lain seperti pengaruh geografi budaya yang lain.

Bentuk muka bumi makro.

Bentuk muka bumi makro adalah bentuk muka bumi fizikal yang dilihat secara umum di kawasan tersebut yang menjadi bentuk muka bumi asas pada sesuatu kawasan. Oleh yang demikian, bentuk muka bumi makro di kawasan tersebut  hanya dapat dibahagikan tiga jenis bentuk muka bumi yang utama iaitu tanah tinggi, dataran dan kawasan pinggir pantai seperti yang ditunjukkan pada foto satelit di bawah dan bentuk muka bumi ini merupakan asas bentuk-bentuk pola petempatan yang terdapat di kawasantersebut.

Tanah Tinggi.

Secara am Gunung Jerai yang mempunyai ketinggian 1217 meter yang membentuk tulang belakang daratan di Daerah Yan dan juga Daerah Kuala Muda. Tanah tinggi ini membentuk banjaran tanah tinggi yang menganjur dari utara ke selatan dari Guar dan berakhir di Merbok dengan panjang 13.2 kilometer yang berfungsi sebagai kawasan tadahan hujan dan juga punca utama sungai di kawasan sekitar.

Oleh yang demikian, dapat dilihat guna tanah di kawasan tanah tinggi adalah terhad pada tempat tertentu sahaja. Malahan faktor kos pembinaan untuk mengubahsuaian bentuk muka bumi menjadi faktor penentu utamaguna tanah.

Dataran.

Kedua-dua daerah di kawasan gurun mempunyai kawasan dataran yang luas yang mana ke dua-dua daerah ini memberi sumbangan kawasan dataran yang luas membentuk Dataran Kedah. Kawasan dataran di kedua-dua kawasan tersebut dimanfaatkan oleh penduduk sebagai kawasan pertanian, pusat petempatan, pusat perindustrian, pengangkutan dan juga pelbagai aktiviti ekonomi yang lain.

Dalam pada itu, dapat dilihat bahawa kawasan dataran adalah kawasan yang sesuai untuk pembinaan kawasan petempatan. Berdasarkan Foto 1menunjukkan tumpuan kawasan petempatan yang terletak di kawasan dataran di kawasan kaki Gunung Jerai.

FOTO 1

Pinggir Pantai.

Kawasan pinggir pantai juga merupakan satu ciri bentuk muka bumi di kawasan tersebut  terutama sekali di Daerah Yan. Kawasan pinggir pantai di kawasan kajian ini mempunyai panjang 16.2 kilometer yang menganjur dari Yan Besar dan berakhir di Tanjung Dawai. Kawasan pinggir pantai ini dimanfaatkan oleh penduduk sebagai pusat perikanan, petempatan dan juga rekreasi seperti di Pantari Murni dan juga Pantai Merdeka di Merbok.

Dalam untuk mengetahui faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi faktor alam sekitar semulajadi  terhadap perkembangan guna tanah di sesebuah kawasan petempatan di Yan dan di Gurun . gambaran ini dilihat dengan lebi mendalam di Kg. Titi Raga dan juga kawasan petempatan kawasan sekitar cawangan anak Sungai Kunyit untuk mengenal pasti faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan sesebuah pusat petempatan.

 Kg. Titi Raga, Yan.

Untuk melihat dengan lebih dekat lagi faktor alam sekitar semulajadi yang mempengaruhi perkembangan guna tanah di pusat petempatan maka Kg. Titi Raga di mana kampung ini mempunyai lebih kurang 300 orang penduduk dengan 30 buah rumah persendirian yang dibina secara berpusat. Pekerjaan utama penduduk di kampung ini adalah penoreh getah, nelayan dan pesawah. Antara faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan guna tanah di petempatan di Kg. Titi Raga adalah seperti berikut:-

Faktor bentuk muka bumi.

Secara am bentuk muka bumi di kawasan ini adalah dataran yang mempunyai ketinggian di antara sembilan hingga 16 meter dari aras laut. Oleh yang demikian, kawasan ini dimanfaatkan oleh penduduk sebagai pusat petempatan di samping pembinaan sistem pengangkutan seperti Foto 2 di bawah.

FOTO 2

Kesan daripada keadaan bentuk muka bumi yang datar dan luas menyebabkan penyebaran guna tanah untuk pembinaan kawasan petempatan semua arah dapat dilihat di kawasan petempatan ini.

Guna tanah ini tersebar ke semua arah dan tidak tersusun di kawasan ini adalah disebabkan juga oleh faktor pembinaan sistem pengangkutan yang dibina selepas kawasan petempatan ini telah dibina. Sebagai kesan, didapati sistem pengangkutan di kawasan ini adalah padat tetapi terlalu sempit menghala hampir semua arah membolehkan perhubungan ke semua kawasan. Oleh yang demikian, keadaan ini menggalakkan pembinaan rumah secara tidak teratur.

Perkembangan guna tanah dari aspek pertanian di kawasan gurun ,kedah ini dilihat dalam penanaman limau nipis. Limau nipis adalah salah satu tanaman yang sesuai ditanam kerana buahnya ada yang diluar musim, tanaman jangka panjang dan berbuah sepanjang masa. Projek tanaman agro limau nipis memerlukan keluasan paling minimum untuk dikomersialkan adalah 8.4 ekar (12 relung), dan menjadikan guna tanah digunakan sebanyak 2400 pokok.

Selain itu, guna tanah dalam pertanian di kawasan tersebut adalah buah cempedak . hal ini kerana buah cempedak sesuai ditanam di bawah iklim yang panas dan lembap.  Walau bagaimanapun pokok pada peringkat dewasa tidaklah begitu terjejas sangat oleh keadaan kemarau.  Suhu yang sesuai untuk tanamaj cempedak ialah antara 22oC -35oC.  Curahan hujan yang optimum untuk tanaman cempedak ialah 2500 mm setahun.

Musim berbuah bagi tanaman cempedak dipengaruhi`oleh musim kering.&lbsp; Kawasan di daerah Yan ini mempunyai dua musim kering yang pendek dalam setahun biasanya mempunyai dua kali musim buah dalam setahun.  Di kawasan yang hanya mempunyai satu musim kering seperti di Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan dan sebahagian kawasan di Terengganu, pokok cempedak berbuah hanya sekali dalam setahun. Cempedak sesuai ditanam di berbagai jenis tanah dan keadaan tanah yang mempunyai saliran yang baik.

Kepadatan jaringan sistem pengangkutan memainkan peranan yang sangat penting  dalam pembentukan guna tanah iaitu pola petempatan di sesebuah kawasan. Hasil daripada kajian menunjukkan jaringan sistem pengangkutan yang terdapat di Gurun adalah padat dan terancang membawa kesan yang  nyata ke atas bentuk pola petempatan.

Kepelbagaian kegiatan ekonomi penduduk sesuatu kawasan juga menentukan kepadatan dan bentuk pola petempatan di sesebuah pusat petempatan. Kawasan yang mempunyai kepelbagaian infrastruktur ekonomi serta kepelbagaian aktiviti ekonomi akan menarik ramai penduduk tertumpu di kawasan berkenaan.

Oleh yang demikian, kegiatan ekomoni sekunder dan tertier yang melibatkan perkhidmatan pemprosesan dan perkhidmatan kepakaran seperti bank dan klinik kesihatan juga menjadikan sesebuah kawasan petempatan menjadi lebih teratur dan terancang. Dalam aspek perkembangan ekonomi di Kedah, secara keseluruhan yang melibatkan bandar utama iaitu Langkawi, Alor Setar, Kulim, Sungai Petani dan Gurun menunjukkan Gurun telah diletakkan sebagai sebuah bandar penting yang dikenali sebagai Bandar Kenderaan Nasional (Kedah ICT, 2006) berdasarkan penilaian ekonomi oleh kerajaan negeri.

Selain daripada itu, sistem pengangkutan juga memainkan peranan penting dalam pembinaan bentuk pola penempatan di kawasan ini. Kawasan yang kurang atau memiliki sistem pengangkutan jalan raya tunggal akan menyebabkan pola petempatan yang terbentuk ialah pola petempatan berjajar seperti yang dapat dilihat di Kg. Kilang Ketapan dan juga Kg. Panjang yang hanya memiliki jalan raya tunggal.

Oleh kerana Gurun terletak di tengah-tengah persinggahan perjalanan ke utara dari Sungai Petani maka tidak hairanlah aktiviti ekonomi berasaskan perindustrian industri penting terdapat di Gurun seperti Modenas, Petronas dan juga pembuat kereta nasional Naza. Sehubungan dengan itu, kemasukkan penduduk di kawasan berkenaan akan menyebabkan guna tanah meningkat dan permintaan terhadap keperluan tempat tinggal.

Rujukan

 Shukri Sulaiman, 2006, Geografi Fizikal. Selangor, Arah Pendidikan Sdn.Bhd.

Narimah Samad, 2008, Sistem Maklumat Geografi dalam Analisis Guna Tanah. Pulau Pinang, USM.

Azman Abdullah, 2007, Kemahiran Geografi. Kuala Lumpur, Arah Pendidikan.

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amnesia

Irregular Sleep Pattern

One of the causes of amnesia among students is irregular sleep schedule. Most of student have experienced trouble sleeping at one time or another.

Most people go to bed at night and sleep until morning. People with irregular sleep-wake syndrome experience disrupted sleep that is often unstructured and broken. According to the National Institutes of Health (NIH), this syndrome is very uncommon (NIH, 2010).

From the observation,53.3% of students state that they always having a irregular sleep schedule. 20% of student said never & 26.67% had rarely. Its an operant conditioning. It was because students become stress to fulfil their demand in study fields. The results is the muscle become stress, blood pressure rises, heartbeat goes up, overthinking and over pressure.

 People with irregular sleep-wake syndrome usually sleep one to four hours at a time. They have several sleep sessions in a 24-hour period. The longest period of continuous sleep is typically between the hours of 2 a.m. and 6 a.m. (Zee & Vitiello, 2009).

People with irregular sleep-wake syndrome are not considered sleep-deprived. They get an adequate amount of sleep. However, it is spread over a 24-hour period rather than concentrated into seven or eight hours. People with this condition have problems with both insomnia and excessive sleepiness during the day.

Many among college and university students suffer from amnesia because they are more awake during the night to complete the task and its impact on their sleep time has changed. They are active at night and feeling tired and sleepy during the day.

This is normal and usually temporary, due to stress or other outside factors. But if sleep problems are a regular occurrence and interfere with  daily life, it may be suffering from a sleep disorder. Sleep disorders cause more than just sleepiness. The lack of quality sleep can have a negative impact on energy, emotional balance, and health.

Many factors affect sleep patterns among students. For example, some students choose to play online games than to study. Because playing online games more appealing to them and also play online games can be addictive to keep playing. Other factors such as social networking, they are every night like status updates on twitter or facebook often lose track of time. Without them knowing it can make their sleep patterns become irregular and can interfere with concentration and learning.

Many students stay up late to do assignments or study for a retrial. They chose to sleep late and do chores or studying for a retrial. Some are choosing to sleep and then wake up at dawn certain days and work assignments or study for replication. Actually it is not good because if not better sleep patterns will be difficult to concentrate and also have an effect on the health of students. Because at certain hours of the night certain body parts will work during sleep, our body processes that occur in the body will not occur and cause students experience health problems.

The Habits of Caffein Intake

Drinking too much coffee, colas, or other "energy-upper drinks" is known to cause insomnia. Caffeine from these drinks is the main reason. Chain smokers can also be easy victims of insomnia because of the nicotine that cigarettes contain. Additionally, herbal remedies, alcohol, and other medications can make one prone to becoming an insomniac. Some may think that alcohol, when consumed, can make one feel drowsy. But little do they know that in the long run, when the alcohol gets metabolized, sudden wakefulness will follow.

Imsonia among students can be a common cause of complain for substance abusers. This is particular true for those students who become reliant on uppers and downers. Those students rely on depressants like alcohol to get to sleep may struggle when the substance isn’t available. Those students who abuse stimulants will commonly suffer from long bouts of insomnia that can damage their mental health leading to paranoia and psychosis.

From the observation, 53.33% of student said they rarely to consume cafein, 33.33% said always & 13.33% said never consume caffeine. It is an opperant conditioning. It was because student think cafein help them a lot in keeping them unsleepy, awake that encourage them to take coffee or tea on a day.

Students who break away from consume caffeine will often have to deal with withdrawal symptoms. This can involve a period of time where it is difficult to sleep. This problem will usually resolve after a few weeks away from alcohol or drugs.

Caffeine is an addictive drug colorless and tasteless which is found in many foods and beverages we consume. also found in several drugs as a cardiac stimulant and also as a mild diuretic to increase urine production. Food and beverages such as coffee, tea, chocolate, and cola all contain caffeine, which can cause insomnia and sleep deprivation.

Caffeine can give a boost of energy and the high alertness and is often used to stay awake longer. People from all walks of life use it to stay awake late into the night while others feel as if they can not function properly without a cup of coffee in the morning.

As well as an addictive drug, caffeine stimulates the brain in much the same way as amphetamines, cocaine, and heroin. Although the overall effect of caffeine is lighter than other drugs, but still manipulate the same brain drain that makes caffeine addicting.

Caffeine consumption has been linked to sleep disorders, including insomnia, due to physiological effects. Insomnia is a condition when student or a person have trouble sleeping or can not fall asleep at all. Although insomnia symptoms usually last only a few nights, a few patients have symptoms lasting for months or even years in extreme cases.

Although insomnia can be caused by many other factors such as stress, mental problems ,, drugs or alcohol, lack of exercise, excessive noise or light, and certain physical illnesses, it has been found that the consumption of caffeine is the most common cause of sleep disorders.

If your sleep has been interrupted for more than several weeks and interfere with your ability to function normally during the day, you should first consult your doctor.

Caffeine is known to directly affect the functioning of kidneys and can cause kidney and urinary infections. The infection also can disrupt normal sleep cycle or cause trouble sleeping. It may also students to get up several times at night to urinate, which will cause REM sleep cycle, which in turn will make they feel tired when wake up in the morning. The main remedy for this problem is to cut caffeine intake. Because caffeine does not affect anything to the flavor of coffee or other drink, try switching to decaffeinated versions. Do not forget to drink a glass of water before going to bed at night to clean up kidneys.

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Jane Goddal, Dian Fossey and Birute Galdikas

QUESTION

(1) Explain where, when and how each of the Trimates started their conservation work

(2) Elaborate on the most challenging conservation problem each of them faced

 (3) Explain what they did or are doing to overcome their respective problems

 (4) Which of the Trimates do you find most inspiring and why?

ANSWER

1)    Jane Goddal, Dian Fossey and Birute Galdikas have been named as The Trimates or Leakey’s Angels as they each have been sent by Dr Leakey to study a primate each. Jane Goodall were in charge of the chimpanzees, Dian Fossey, the gorillas, and Birutė Galdikas, the orangutans.

Goodall started her conservation work at Africa where Goodall had always been passionate about animals and Africa, which brought her to the farm of a friend in the Kenya highlands in 1957.From there, she obtained work as a secretary, and acting on her friend's advice, she telephoned Louis Leakey, a Kenyan archaeologist and palaeontologist, with no other thought than to make an appointment to discuss animals. Leakey, believing that the study of existing great apes could provide indications of the behaviour of early hominids  was looking for a chimpanzee researcher, though he kept the idea to himself. Instead, he proposed that Goodall work for him as a secretary. After obtaining his wife Mary Leakey's approval, Louis sent Goodall to Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, where he laid out his plans. In 1958, Leakey sent Goodall to London to study primate behaviour with Osman Hill and primate anatomy with John Napier. Leakey raised funds, and on 14 July 1960, Goodall went to Gombe Stream National Park, becoming the first of what would come to be called The Trimates. She was accompanied by her mother, whose presence was necessary to satisfy the requirements of David Anstey, chief warden, who was concerned for their safety; Tanzania was "Tanganyika" at that time and a British protectorate. Leakey arranged funding and in 1962, he sent Goodall, who had no degree, to Cambridge University where she obtained a PhD degree in Ethology. She became only the eighth person to be allowed to study for a PhD there without first having obtained a BA or BSc.Her thesis was completed in 1965 under the tutorship of Robert Hinde, former master of St. John's College, Cambridge, titled “Behaviour of the Free-Ranging Chimpanzee”, detailing her first five years of study at the Gombe Reserve.

While Dian Fossey started her conservation work at Rwanda. On September 24, 1967, Fossey founded the Karisoke Research Center, a remote rainforest camp nestled in Ruhengeri province in the saddle of two volcanoes. For the research center's name, Fossey used "Kari" for the first four letters of Mount Karisimbi that overlooked her camp from the south, and "soke" for the last four letters of Mount Visoke, the slopes of which rose to the north, directly behind camp.Established 3,000 metres (9,800 ft) up Mount Visoke, the defined study area covered 25 square kilometres . She became known by locals as Nyirmachabelli, or Nyiramacibiri, roughly translated as "The woman who lives alone on the mountain.

Unlike the gorillas from the Congo side of the Virungas, the Karisoke area gorillas had never been partially habituated by Schaller's study; they knew humans only as poachers, and it took longer for Fossey to be able to study the Karisoke gorillas at a close distance.

Many research students left after not being able to handle the cold, dark, and extremely muddy conditions around Karisoke on the slopes of the Virunga Volcanoes, where paths usually had to be cut through six-foot-tall grass with a machete.

For the last, Birute Galdikas started her conservation work at Indonesia. At 25, Galdikas arrived in Borneo to begin her field studies of orangutans in a jungle environment extremely inhospitable to most Westerners. Galdikas proceeded to make many invaluable contributions to the scientific understanding of Indonesia's biodiversity and the rainforest as a whole, while also bringing the orangutan to the attention of the rest of the world.

When she arrived in Borneo, Galdikas settled into a primitive bark and thatch hut, at a site she dubbed Camp Leakey, near the edge of the Java Sea. Once there, she encountered numerous poachers, legions of leeches, and swarms of carnivorous insects. Yet she persevered through many travails, remaining there for over 30 years while becoming an outspoken advocate for orangutans and the preservation of their rainforest habitat, which is rapidly being devastated by loggers, palm oil plantations, gold miners, and unnatural conflagrations.

Galdikas's conservation efforts have extended well beyond advocacy, largely focusing on rehabilitation of the many orphaned orangutans turned over to her for care. Many of these orphans were once illegal pets, before becoming too smart and difficult for their owners to handle. Galdikas's rehabilitation efforts through Orangutan Foundation International (OFI) also include the preservation of rainforest. Although one Canadian author in the late 1990s was critical of the rehabilitation methods, the ongoing birth of new orangutans among the formerly-rehabilitated adult orangutans at Camp Leakey is part of what makes it the longest continual study of a single species. The value of Dr. Galdikas's work has been acknowledged in television shows hosted by Steve Irwin as well as Jeff Corwin on Animal Planet. In addition, the importance of Dr. Galdikas's concern and work towards preserving Indonesian rain forest has been reinforced by the biofuel article of January 25, 2007, in The New York Times and the November 2008 article in National Geographic magazine, "Borneo's Moment of Truth." Galdikas's organization, O.F.I., is also involved in a reforestation project, planting native trees in previously destroyed areas of rain forest.

2)    The most challenging conservation problem Jane Goddal faced was her first attempts to observe closely a group of chimpanzees failed,she could get no nearer than 500 yards before the chimps fled.

Others that that, Some primatologists have suggested flaws in Goodall's methodology which may call into question the validity of her observations. Goodall used unconventional practices in her study, for example, naming individuals instead of numbering them. At the time numbering was used to prevent emotional attachment and loss of objectivity. Claiming to see individuality and emotion in chimpanzees, she was accused of "that worst of ethological sins,anthropomorphism.

Many standard methods aim to avoid interference by observers, and in particular some believe that the use of feeding stations to attract Gombe chimpanzees has altered normal foraging and feeding patterns and social relationships. This argument is the focus of a book published by Margaret Power in 1991.It has been suggested that higher levels of aggression and conflict with other chimpanzee groups in the area were due to the feeding, which could have created the "wars" between chimpanzee social groups described by Goodall, aspects of which she did not witness in the years before artificial feeding began at Gombe. Thus, some regard Goodall's observations as distortions of normal chimpanzee behaviour.Goodall herself acknowledged that feeding contributed to aggression within and between groups, but maintained that the effect was limited to alteration of the intensity and not the nature of chimpanzee conflict, and further suggested that feeding was necessary for the study to be effective at all. Craig Stanford of the Jane Goodall Research Institute at the University of Southern California asserts that researchers conducting studies with no artificial provisioning have a difficult time viewing any social behaviour of chimpanzees, especially those related to intergroup conflict.

The most challenging conservation problem Dian Fossey faced was referred to her extreme tactics as 'active conservation'. This included funding an army of anti-poaching scouts. When Fossey came across poachers, it was said that she would employ methods of torture, burning their possessions and occasionally kidnapping their children (Montgomery, 1991). After her favorite gorilla, Digit, and other familiar gorillas were slain, her anti-poaching war became personal. Not even Jane Goodall, who described Fossey as a good friend, could condone her extreme tactics. Many individuals claim that Fossey was responsible for bringing on her own death as much as the person who wielded the spear that split her skull in 1985 (Montgomery, 1991). She imposed her own laws on a sovereign nation and made enemies of the locals. Dian Fossey did not exhibit the care for the native people that she did for the mountain gorillas. Her attitude toward children and animals was very western in origin. It was in her 'active conservation' that she developed the African philosophy.

She used stinging nettles as a method of torture, a concept borrowed from the African tradition. She painted hexes, cast spells, and pronounced curses (Montgomery, 1991). To the Africans, the idea of witchcraft was very real and Fossey used this to her advantage. Not only did she perform witchcraft, but she came to think of herself as a witch. Although it has been suggested that some of her personal accounts have been exaggerated, they are thought to generally encompass a truthful basis. She experienced a great deal of pain and emotional turmoil on her road to improve the lives of her beloved gorillas. Many of her claims, if not reality, may have been a way for her to emotionally enact some of the acts of hatred that she had craved to carry out. She was outraged by the atrocities committed against the mountain gorillas. It was not the Rwandan locals that Fossey angered as a result of her actions, so much as the authorities that she had diverted money away from through her tourist scare tactics. She did not like any intruders in her camp or near the gorillas. In articles and films, she displayed the Rwandan authorities as incompetent in protecting the mountain gorillas (Montgomery 1991). For obvious reasons, this did not sit well with Rwandan authorities and they reacted by approaching Fossey with their concerns and options to work out their differences. One of these options involved Fossey leaving the area, possibly returning at a later date. She felt like she did not have time to craft 'resource management plans' or wait for diplomatic solutions to be reached, so she employed her 'active conservation' as it was the only method she felt would be effective in protecting the gorillas

 (Montgomery, 1991).

In her later years, former students spread rumors of her paranoia, alcoholism and aggressive behaviour toward tourists (Montgomery, 1991). The State Department seemed most anxious to arrange her departure, but tried to work out their differences in a seemingly diplomatic manner (Haye,s 1990). Both the Leaky Foundation and the National Geographic Society threatened to withhold their subsidies and by 1984, National Geographic had completely cut off Fossey's support. She then rallied one last time, using money from the Digit Fund (explained later, under 'Relevant Conservation Societies') and from her book Gorillas in the Mist and significantly increased poacher patrols. A report that she had written from the first quarter of 1984 stated that her patrols had cut 582 traps and spotted 67 poachers . Despite her 'active conservation' philosophy and the fact that she either angered or scared a significant number of people, Dian Fossey spurred great advancements in the area of environmental protection and awareness. The Rwandan government has become supportive of gorilla conservation and has allocated more land around the park for cultivation and expansion .

While the most challenging conservation problem Birute Galdikas faced was criticised in the late 1990s regarding her methods of rehabilitation. Primatologists debated the issue on the Internet mailing list Primate-Talk; the issue was further fueled by the publication of articles in Outside magazine (May 1998) and Newsweek (June 1998). As reported in both articles and summarized in the 1999 book The Follow by Canadian novelist Linda Spalding, the Indonesian Ministry of Forestry - with whom Galdikas had clashed over logging policies - claimed that Galdikas held "a very large number of illegal orangutans . In very poor conditions" at her Indonesian home, prompting the government to consider formal charges. Galdikas denied all such claims in a response to Newsweek in June 1999, remarking that allegations of mistreatment were "simply, wrong" and that the "outlandish" claims formed the basis of "a totally one-sided campaign against me."

3)     Jane Goodall overcome her respective problems and shrugged off criticism from the scientific community, which told her she shouldn’t ascribe personalities or give chimps names instead of assigned numbers. “See, I wasn’t wanting a career in science. I didn’t really care,” Goodall says. Her income came from Leakey’s patrons and National Geographic, who were fine with her approach. “I didn’t want to let Louis Leakey down. I just passionately wanted to get enough money to go on studying chimpanzees. I didn’t want to be a professor.”

At Leakey’s urging and to help make it easier to raise money for her work, she took time out to earn a Ph.D. at Cambridge University, becoming one of only eight people to do so without a bachelor’s degree. She returned to Africa to do research the way she wanted. “If people said I was doing it wrong, I would say: ‘Well, it’s the way I want to do it. I’ve got the money to do it this way. If you think it’s wrong, well, then, go and do your own study in a different way. That’s fine.’

“I had a mother who said: If people don’t agree with you, listen to them and if you still think you’re right, have the courage of your convictions.”

While Dian Fossey not had overcome her problem .The tension around her camp became so high that Fossey resigned directorship of Karisoke in 1980 and became a visiting associate professor at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. She also began writing Gorillas in the Mist. In June 1983, Fossey returned to Karisoke as Director. In September of that same year, Gorillas in the Mist was published. Years later, her book was made into a movie, with Sigourney Weaver portraying Dian Fossey.

In December 1985, her wishes for peace with the local government came true. Sadly though, Fossey didn't get to enjoy this peaceful atmosphere because on December 26th, 1985, Dian Fossey was found with her skull crushed with a panga. Her killer, probably a poacher, was never found and she was buried in the cemetery next to her beloved gorillas. Her grave is marked.

Lastly, Birute Galdikas overcome her problem by just get along with her advocacy work, Galdikas does continue to conduct field research and observe orangutans in their natural habitat. In 1995, she published Reflections of Eden, a memoir in which she recounts her experiences at Camp Leakey, and describes her efforts to rehabilitate orangutans for release back into the wild.

4)    The Trimates that i find most inspiring are Birute Galdikas , it was because

Biruté Galdikas has spent her life in relentless pursuit of an aspiration she has held from childhood. She became her own agent for fulfilling her dreams, poring over any book she could get her hands on as a child, and working through college and grad school to achieve her goal of studying orangutans in their native environment. Her enthusiasm equipped her to endure unfriendly field conditions, relentless rain, poachers, leeches, and the constant plague of carnivorous insects.

Galdikas’s research has illuminated our knowledge and appreciation of orangutans, humans’ most distant relative within the great apes. She has championed the preservation of the Borneo rainforest, more and more of which is vanishing due to human activities. Beyond a purely scientific relationship, she developed intimate connections with the Bornean orangutans she studied. She became a matriarch to ex-captive orphans, many of whom travelled by her side, shared her meals, and slept beside her. She adopted infant orangutans who would treat her as a mother and cling to her at all times. Indeed, Biruté Galdikas has bridged the gap between our species and theirs. Through her work, she has forged not only new knowledge, but also new relationships that are as robust as the kinship that binds us to other humans.

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